7. Tree diagrams of sentence structure 句子结构树形图

The hierarchical order can be best illustrated with a tree diagram of constituent structure.

句子的层次结构可以用各组成部分的树形图来很好地说明。见课文67－70页。

In addition, the hierarchical structure of sentences can also be illustrated by using brackets and subscript labels.

另外，句子的层次结构还可以用括号和写在下角的标记来标示。见课文71页。

8. Lexical categories 词类

Words are organized into groups of lexical categories, commonly known as parts of speech. A language has major and minor lexical categories. Major lexical categories are open categories that new words are constantly added. Minor lexical categories are closed categories because the number of the lexical items in these categories is fixed and no new members are allowed for. English has four major lexical categories and six minor lexical categories.

所有的词都有某种属性，即词性。词可以分为主要词类和次要词类。主要词类不断有新词加入，它是开放词类，而次要词类是封闭的，因为这类词的词项是固定的，不允许有新词加入。

英语有四个主要词类和六个次要词类。

主要词类：

Noun (N) 名词：student

Verb (V) 动词：like

Adjective (Adj) 形容词：tall

Adverb (Adv) 副词：loudly

次要词类：

Determiner (Det) 限定词：the, a, this, his

Auxiliary (Aux) 助动词：can, do, will

Preposition (Prep) 介词：in, at, over

Pronoun (Pron) 代词：he, she, us, mine

Conjunction (Conj) 连词：and, or, but, while

Interjection (Int) 感叹词：oh, ah, eh

9. Phrasal categories 词组类型

Four phrasal categories are commonly recognized and discussed, namely, noun phrase (NP), verb phrase (VP), prepositional phrase (PP), and adjective phrase (AP).

NP and VP are essential components of a sentence, comprising the subject and predicate.

Important note: NP just contain a noun, VP just contain a verb, PP just contain a preposition and AP just contain an adjective.

通常讨论的词组类型有四种，分别是：名词词组，动词词组，介词词组和形容词词组。

名词词组和动词词组是句子中最重要的词组，因为它们构成了句子的主语和谓语。

重要：一个名词词组只包含一个名词，一个动词词组只包含一个动词，一个介词词组只包含一个介词，一个形容词词组只包含一个形容词。

10. Grammatical relations 语法关系

The structural and logical function relations of constituents are called grammatical relations. The grammatical relations of a sentence concern the way each noun phrase in the sentence relates to the verb. In English and many other languages, the subject usually precedes the verb and the direct object usually follows the verb. Strictly speaking, this statement is true only in terms of the structural subject（结构主语） and the structural object（结构宾语）. The logical subject （逻辑主语）and the logical object（逻辑宾语） may have different positions.

语法关系是指句子中名词词组和动词的关系，其中涉及到主语和宾语的结构性和逻辑性。从结构上看，英语句子中的主语往往出现在动词之前，宾语往往出现在动词止回。这种置动词之前的主语叫结构主语，置动词之后的宾语叫结构宾语。结构主语和结构宾语只是句子的形式主语和形式宾语，而意义上的主语和宾语才是句子的逻辑主语和逻辑宾语。逻辑主语是实施者，而逻辑宾语是受事者。逻辑主语和逻辑宾语在句子中的位置可以同形式主语和形式宾语在句子中的位置相同，也可以不同。如英语被动句中的形式主语是逻辑宾语，而形式宾语是逻辑主语。

11. Phrasal structure rules 短语结构规则

The combinational pattern in a linear formula may be called a phrase structural rule, or rewrite rule.

短语结构规则是一组句法重写规则。

Example 1:

S → NP VP. The arrow is read as “consist of”, or “is rewritten as” 。

The rule is: a sentence consists of, or is rewritten as, a noun phrase and a verb phrase.

在本例中，箭头读作“包含”或“重写为”。这样的规则就读作：一个句子包含或可以重写为一个名词词组和一个动词词组。

Example 2:

NP → (Det)(Adj)N(PP)(S)

A noun phrase consists of, or is rewritten as, an optional determiner, an optional adjective, an obligatory noun, an optional prepositional phrase, and/or an optional sentence.

这就是名词词组的短语结构规则，读作：一个名词词组包含或可以重写为一个限定词、一个形容词、一个名词、一个介词词组和（或）一个句子，其中名词是必须有的，其它是可选成分。

Example 3:

VP → V(NP)(PP)(S)

AP → A(PP)(S)

PP → P NP